Waveforms:

This section will provide you with some background on waveforms and on measuring waveforms. It is especially important that you understand how to measure waveforms. This is a skill that is not only important to this lab, but also to the T-1 Lab and in labs for other Telecommunications Courses.
• There are two types of alternating-current signals, which are also called waveforms:
• Periodic
• Non-periodic
_ Periodic signals, such as sine or triangle waves, behave in a uniform manner and repeat themselves over a given length of time. Each repetition of a repeating signal is called a period or a cycle.
_ Non-periodic signals, such as analog voice, behave in a non-uniform manner and do not repeat themselves over any given length of time.
Note: In this lab, we will only work with periodic signals.
• When working with AC signals, there are three properties of the signal that we are concerned with: amplitude, period and frequency.
• The amplitude of the wave is defined as the maximum magnitude of the wave. The amplitude is the vertical component of the signal and is measured in units of volts (V). Since we are dealing with an AC signal, the voltage will change over a period of time. The maximum voltage of a signal during its cycle is commonly referred to as the peak voltage (Vp).
• The amplitude can be measured from the reference line to the peak (Vp) or from peak-to-peak (Vpp). See Figure 1 below.

peak-to-peak amplitude peak or maximumamplitudereference point
Figure 1: Measuring Amplitude.


• With a periodic signal that is symmetrical (equi-distant above and below the reference point), the peak-to-peak voltage is equal to twice the peak voltage:
Vpp = 2 * Vp
• The period (T) of the signal is defined as the time it takes for a signal to complete one full cycle. The period is the horizontal component of the signal, measured in units of seconds (s). In Figure 2, the period of the signal is measured as 250 milliseconds (250.0 x 10-3s).

PERIOD one second250 msec250 msec250 msec250 msec
Figure 2: Measuring Period.


• The frequency (f) of the signal is defined as the rate at which a periodic signal repeats. It is usually measured in units of Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second.
• In Figure 4, above, you can see four(4) cycles occurring within one second; therefore, the signal has a frequency of 4 Hz.
• The frequency, f, of a wave is inversely related to its period (T):
f = 1 / T
• Example:
The period of the signal is 250 milliseconds, therefore the frequency of that signal is:
f = 1 / T f = 1 / 250 milliseconds f = 4 Hertz

Table of Scientific Prefixes
___________________________________
Abbreviation Prefix_Name Factor
_________________________________
T Tera 10^12
G Giga 10^9
M Mega 10^6
K Kilo 10^3
m milli 10^-3
μ micro 10^-6
n nano 10^-9
p pico 10^-12
___________________________________

EX- Salary account

My ex-salary account swallowed Rs 6,000

SALARY accounts usually offer zero balance, free demand drafts, free international debit cards and a lot more and these are not applicable on regular savings accounts. But when you leave (the company) you leave its perks behind. A lot of people don't know this and this results in some unpleasant surprises.
One such troubled salary account holder, Geeta Rao, reveals, "I had a salary account in a leading private bank. When I left the company, I stopped using the account but did not close it either. Two whole years later, when I deposited a cheque in that account, a hefty fine was deducted for not maintaining the Rs 5,000 minimum balance. So my cheque amount of Rs 6,500 was reduced to a mere Rs 500. Apparently, my salary account had been converted into a savings without my knowledge."So if you have a salary account, then this is what you should look out for: - The fine printI personally don't know anyone who reads the fine print on application forms. Yet, this small and common negligence is a big mistake. The account opening form (for salary account) of ICICI Bank clearly states that if no salary gets credited into your account for six months, the bank will convert your account into a savings account. The bank is not obliged to inform you about this.HDFC Bank also maintains that since the agreement of salary account is between the employer and the bank they needn't inform the employee. Not all banks have this approach. Says Sanjay Silas, VP – retail banking, UTI Bank, "The bank informs the client and the corporate in case the payroll special scheme is discontinued due to non credit of salaries." - The chargesThe biggest repercussion of your salary account getting converted to a regular savings account, is the maintenance of minimum balance. If you fail to do so, the bank will levy charges.
Here is a look at some of the charges:
Charges
Amount (approximate)
Non maintenance of minimum balance
Rs 500 to Rs 750 per quarter
Debit card fees
Rs 99 per annum
Cash transactions at branch if minimum balance is not maintained
Rs 60 per transaction after first 9 months
Non IVR calls to customer care if minimum balance is not maintained
Rs 50 per call
Cheque books if minimum balance is not maintained
Rs 5 per cheque leaf
A warning: a low balance account that is continuously hit with charges may run to a negative. That's what happened to Geeta. When she deposited the cheque, the negative balance ate into her cheque amount. So what can you do to avoid this?The best thing to do is first find out whether your new employer holds salary accounts with the same bank. If they do, you could well retain the account and continue to enjoy the corporate account benefits. If that is not the case, then decide whether you need a regular savings account or not, and intimate the bank accordingly.